Earth’s ecosystems provide everything that is necessary for humans to survive—clean air, water, food, and medicine. However, the benefits that we receive from nature don’t stop there. In this post, I share a list of ecosystem services that I collated from various articles and books. This list is not exhaustive! However, it does provide an overview of the many different ways that nature supports our well-being.
But first, what is an ecosystem?
An ecosystem is a piece of the earth of any size that contains living and non-living elements. The interaction between plants, animals, fungi, microbes (living) and soil, minerals, water, and sunlight (non-living) interact to create dynamic systems that transform energy and material.
What are the different ecosystem types?
Taking a comprehensive view, there are two main ecosystem types: terrestrial (land) and aquatic (water). Within these two categories, there are different regional and more specialized ecosystems types (e.g., temperate forest, desert, prairie, savannah, urban, agricultural, tundra, etc.). Ecosystems also range in scale—from micro-ecosystems like the tide pools found near rocky coastlines to mega ecosystems like the Amazon Rainforest. The variety of ecosystem types aggregate to form the foundation of the Biosphere, which underpins the health of the entire Earth system.
What do ecosystems provide?
Scientists have grouped the services that ecosystems provide into four main categories:
1. Supporting services: The services that are necessary for the production of all other ecosystem services including soil formation, photosynthesis, primary production, nutrient cycling, and water cycling.
2. Provisioning services: The products obtained from ecosystems, including food, fiber, fuel, genetic resources, biochemicals, natural medicines, pharmaceuticals, ornamental resources, and freshwater.
3. Regulating services: The benefits obtained from the regulation of ecosystem processes, including air quality regulation, climate regulation, water regulation, erosion regulation, water purification, disease regulation, pest regulation, pollination, and natural hazard regulation.
4. Cultural services: The non-material benefits people obtain from ecosystems through spiritual enrichment, cognitive development, reflection, recreation, and aesthetic experiences.
The detailed list of ecosystem services in each category:
I. Supporting services:
a. Refugium function (Suitable living space for wild plants and animals)
i. Maintenance of biological and genetic diversity: Ref 2, pg. 400;
b. Nursery function (Suitable habitat for the reproduction organisms): Ref 2 pg. 400;
c. Soil formation (Weathering of rock, accumulation of organic matter)
i. Maintenance of productivity on arable land: Ref 2, pg. 399.
ii. Maintenance of healthy soils and productive ecosystems: Ref 2, pg. 399.
d. Nutrient cycling (Role of biota in storage and recycling of nutrients): Ref 2, pg. 399.
II. Provisioning services:
a. Food (Conversion of solar energy into edible plants and animals) Ref 2, pg. 401.
b. Raw materials (Conversion of solar energy into biomass for human construction material and other
uses)
i. Building and Manufacturing (e.g., lumber, latex, gums, oil, tannins, dyes, hormones): Ref 2; pg.
401;
ii. Fuel and Energy (e.g., fuel wood, organic matter): Ref 1; pg. 401;
iii. Fodder and fertilizers (e.g., leaves, organic matter): Ref 1; pg. 401;
c. Genetic resources (Genetic material and evolution in wild plants and animals)
i. Source of genetic material to improve crop resistance to pathogens and pests: Ref 2, pg. 401;
d. Medicinal resources (Variety in biochemical substances in and other medicinal uses of natural
biota): Ref 2, pg. 401;
i. Drugs and pharmaceuticals:
ii. Chemical models and tools
iii. Test and essay organisms
e. Ornamental resources (Variety of biota in natural ecosystems with ornamental use (e.g., resources
for fashion, handicrafts, jewelry, pets, worship, decoration, plant material for green roofing and
ornamental gardens, etc.). Ref 1; pg. 401;
III. Regulating services:
a. Gas Function (Role of ecosystems in bio-geochemical cycles)
i. UVb-projection by O3 (preventing disease like sun cancer): Ref 2, pg. 398; Ref 5, pg. 12.
ii. Maintenance of (good) air quality: Ref 2, pg. 398; Ref 3, pg. 58; Ref 5, pg. 12.
b. Climate regulation (Influence of land cover and biol. mediated processes on climate)
i. Temperature: Ref 2, pg. 398.
ii. Precipitation: Ref 2, pg. 398, Ref 5 pg. 8 (albedo effect);
iii. Carbon sequestration: Ref 3, pg. 58; Ref 5, pg. 14.
iv. Micro-climate regulation (reduction of urban heat island effect): Ref 4, pg. 296;
c. Disturbance prevention (influence of ecosystem structure on dampening env. disturbances)
i. Storm protection: Ref 2, pg. 398; Ref 5 pg. 12.
ii. Flood Protection: Ref 2, pg. 398.
iii. Drought Prevention: Ref 2, pg. 398; Ref 5 pg. 8.
iv. Landslide Prevention (through erosion control): Ref 3, pg. 58.
d. Water regulation (Role of land cover in regulating runoff and river discharge)
i. Drainage and natural irrigation: Ref 2, pg. 398.
ii. Medium for transport: Ref 2, pg. 398.
e. Water supply (Filtering, retention, and storage of fresh water (e.g. in aquifers)
i. Water filtration: Ref 2, pg. 398.
ii. Provision of water for consumptive use (e.g., drinking, irrigation, industrial use): Ref 2, pg. 398; Ref 5, pg. 9;
f. Soil Retention (Role of vegetation root matrix and soil biota in soil retention)
i. Maintenance of arable land: Ref 2, pg. 399.
ii. Prevention of damage from erosion/siltation: Ref 2 pg. 399.
g. Waste treatment (Role of vegetation and biota in removal or breakdown of nutrients and
compounds)
i. Pollution control/detoxification: Ref 2, pg. 399.
ii. Filtering of dust particles: Ref 2, pg. 399.
iii. Abatement of noise pollution: Ref 4, pg. 296;
iv. Sewage treatment: Ref 4, pg. 296;
h. Pollination (Role of biota in movement of floral gamates)
i. Pollination of wild plant species: Ref 2, pg. 399.
ii. Pollination of crops: Ref 2, pg. 399.
i. Biological control (Population control through trophic-dynamic relations)
i. Control of pests and diseases: Ref 2, pg. 400; Ref 3, pg. 58;
ii. Regulation of human diseases: Ref 3, pg. 58;
iii. Reduction of herbivory: Ref 2, pg. 400.
IV. Cultural Services:
a. Aesthetic information (Attractive landscape features): Ref 1; pg. 402;
b. Social Relation (Ecosystems influence the types of social relations that are established in particular
cultures): Ref 3, pg. 59.
c. Recreation (Variety in landscapes with recreational uses such as eco-tourism, camping, outdoor
sports): Ref 1, pg. 402; Ref 3, pg. 59.
d. Cultural and artistic information (Variety in landscapes with cultural and historic value):
i. Use of nature as inspiration for books, film, painting, folklore, national symbols, architect,
advertising, etc.: Ref 1, pg. 402;
ii. Cultural diversity (The diversity of ecosystems is a factor that influences the diversity of
cultures): Ref 3, pg. 58.
e. Spiritual and historic information (Variety in natural features with spiritual and historic value):
Ref 2,pg. 402;
f. Science, education, knowledge (Variety of nature to provide scientific, educational, knowledge
value)
i. Use of natural systems for school excursions or scientific research: Ref 2, pg. 402;
ii. Knowledge systems (traditional and formal). Ecosystems influence types of knowledge
systems: Ref 3, pg. 58.
g. Sense of place (recognized features of an environment that give one a “sense of place”) Ref 3, pg.
59.
h. Public health benefits/ quality of life (stress reduction): Ref 4; pg. 298.
How do humans negatively impact ecosystem health?
In the past 50 years, humans have changed ecosystems more rapidly and extensively than in any other period of time. We modify landcover, build cities, burn fossil fuels, deliberately and inadvertently introduce and eradicate species, and indiscriminately use fertilizers and pesticides. Our intense use of terrestrial and aquatic environments has resulted in substantial gains in economic development and quality of life. However, it has also caused the wide-scale modification of the ecological processes that underpin the delivery of services listed above. This has also exacerbated poverty for some groups, and if not adequately addressed it will greatly diminish the benefits that future generations can obtain ecosystems. A few of the primary ways that humans negatively impact ecosystems include:
Climate change (E.g., effects of global warming on regional temperature and local rainfall patterns)
Degradation, fragmentation, and loss of habitats (e.g., deforestation, draining wetlands)
Alterations to hydrological flows and reduction of aquatic connectivity (e.g., water extraction, dams, breakwaters, and artificial channels)
Nutrient and chemical additions to ecosystems (e.g., fertilizers, pesticides, insecticides)
Unsustainable harvesting of natural resources (e.g., exploitation of fish stocks, timber, and plant products beyond the rate of natural replacement)
Why are healthy ecosystems key to human survival?
Thriving well-functioning ecosystems provide the critical foundation for climate change mitigation and adaptation, water and food security, sustainable economic growth, poverty reduction, and biodiversity conservation. During this time of rapid environmental change, our human survival urgently depends on the conservation, maintenance, and restoration of our planet’s ecosystems.
The United Nations has declared the next ten years (2021-2030) as the Decade on Ecosystem Restoration to highlight the need for global cooperation to restore degraded and destroyed ecosystems. The declaration aims to prevent and halt further deterioration and accelerate the restoration of 350 million hectares of degraded landscapes by 2030—which has the potential to generate USD $9 trillion in net benefits and sequester 13-26 gigatons of greenhouse gases from the atmosphere.
Where can I learn more?
There is so much more to learn about this subject. A good place to start is the Millennium Ecosystem Assessment’s website. From 2001 to 2005, they carried out a scientific appraisal of the conditions and trends in the world’s ecosystems. You can read their reports here.
References:
1. Brown, C, B Reyers, L. Ingwall-King, A Mapendembe, J Nel, P. O’Farrell, M Dixon, and N.J. Bowles-Newark. 2014. “Measuring Ecosystem Services: Guidance on Developing Ecosystem Service Indicators.” Unep-Wcmc, 72.
2. Groot, Rudolf S. De, Matthew A. Wilson, and Roelof M.J. Boumans. 2002. “A Typology for the Classification, Description and Valuation of Ecosystem Functions, Goods and Services.” Ecological Economics 41 (3): 393–408. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0921-8009(02)00089-7.
3. Reid, W V. 2005. Ecosystems and Human Well-Being: A Report on the Conceptual Framework Working Group of the Millenium Ecosystem Assessment. Ecosystems. Vol. 5. https://doi.org/10.1196/annals.1439.003.
4. Bolund, Per, and Sven Hunhammar. 1999. “Ecosystem Services in Urban Areas.” Ecological Economics 29 (1): 293–301. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1016/S0921-8009(99)00013-0.
5. Apsalyamova, Saida Olegovna, Bella Olegovna Khashir, Oleg Zakireevich Khuazhev, Murat Baizetovich Tkhagapso, and Yuri Kazbekovich Bgane. 2015. “The Economic Value of Forest Ecosystem Services.” Journal of Environmental Management and Tourism 6 (2): 291–96. https://doi.org/10.14505/jemt.v6.2(12).01.
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